Regenerating Maya‐Mam ways of governing, Indigenous emancipatory politics in the age of the extractive imperative

The literature on the recent exponential growth of extractive industry in Latin America and beyond has documented various processes through which this sector been empowered to expand its frontier, as well strategies that affected communities employ resist it. However, article we instead focus how some Maya-Mam residents San Miguel Ixtahuacán understood addressed divisive effects Marlin Mine, operated between 2005 2017 was Guatemala's largest open-pit mine. Drawing ethnographic oral history research, uncover resilience ways thinking engaging with politics, addition challenges they faced their endeavors. As will see, face deeply engrained “culture corruption,” tactic appealing others’ conciencia (critical awareness moral integrity) rather than offering monetary rewards garner political support proved be too ambitious. La literatura sobre el reciente crecimiento exponencial de la industria extractiva en América Latina y más allá ha documentado los diversos procesos a través cuales este se empoderado para expandir su frontera las estrategias que comunidades locales afectadas emplean resistirse él. En artículo, cambio, nos centramos cómo algunos Ixtahuacán, donde ubicó principalmente (2005-2017), mayor mina cielo abierto Guatemala, entendieron abordaron efectos divisorios esta mina. Basándonos investigaciones etnográficas historia oral, demostramos tanto resistencia formas pensar hacer política como retos enfrentan quienes intentan regenerarlas. Como veremos, lo localmente percibe profundamente arraigada “cultura corrupción” incitar vecinos gobernarse con qnaab'il (conciencia crítica e integridad moral), no dinero, fue un proyecto excepcionalmente ambicioso. had every Sunday since movement against Mine began, one morning 2016 members Frente Defensa Miguelense (San Miguel's Defense Front, FREDEMI), who were all peasants, gathered humble office, whose rent struggled pay from month month. Their agenda included reviewing proceso (process) initiated Pro Paz, local nongovernmental organization (NGO) invested “conflict resolution peace building” (Fundación our translation).They discussed meeting Paz arranged capital Congressional deputies left-leaning oppositional parties, where FREDEMI hoped present results study NGO sponsored mine-caused contamination. goal strengthen appeal Guatemalan state deny an additional exploitation license Montana Exploradora company operating Aniseto López, then leader FREDEMI, explained 10 or so activists at he concerned because not yet released him, despite his many attempts reach engineer charge it.1 López informed NGO's coordinator this, would go for meeting, unhappy about. remarked, “[The NGO] expenses, but are tourists, right?” (Fieldnotes, Miguel, March 6, 2016, translation). attendees agreed, remarking kind people travel just “hang out.” conversation turned speculation over why published—had “bought off” by Montana? In article, first analyze what led FREDEMI's activism reconstructing kojb'il (the historical, alternate politico-moral community peasants) cultivating own neighbors’ conciencia. This approach made clear when proclaimed were, thus encouraged fellow identify out” (i.e., misappropriate public funds), questioned integrity contracted suggesting may have bought off Montana. exclusively anti-mining ongoing operation mine, violation Indigenous right consulted contamination-free environment, both outcome historical domination societal “moral breakdown” (Zigon, 2007)—the alienation those amongst them surrendered, betrayed, exchange Montana's “gifts” such salaried employment, school building, on. Thus, regain control municipal territory, energy into fighting Marlin's closure politico-legal encouraging draw Finally, better appreciate stakes form emancipatory examine while employing critical awareness, consciousness raising, exemplary action reclaim office. According anthropologist Odilio Jiménez Sánchez (2008), discursively maintained Spanish Conquest continually themselves shared knowledge, (ideas, reflections). Others highlighted key role notion played politics nations. Edgard Esquit Choy (2010), Maya-Kaqchikel, developing one's during Liberal era (1871–1944) meant becoming aware condition being dominated acquiring, formal education, knowledge required practice “more advanced” forms agriculture liberate themselves. Carlota McAllister (2003) highlights connotation took Maya-K'iche’ arrival Catholic Action missionaries Highlands 1970s. context liberation theology–inspired programs “conscientization” implemented region, having came mean joining guerilla defend “good” “evil” military repression. We claim fostering is contemporary articulation these politics. current described us “a cancer,” Arsel, Hogenboom, Pellegrini (2016) label “extractive imperative,” focused reappropriating structures regeneration governing. Since 1990s, following more general trend region (Bebbington et al., 2008), government advocated attracting foreign direct investment mining companies development (Nolin Stephens, 2010). prioritization industry's interests populations rapid primarily territories never before dammed, fracked, mined. changes laws 1997 created favorable climate global investment, liberalization 1998, contributed increase exploration licenses 1,000 percent 1998 2008 (Dougherty, 2011). rest greater social mobilization conflict (Aguilar-González 2018). Most phenomenon either frontier (e.g., Szablowski, 2019), local, employed it Velásquez, 2022). Receiving less attention, however, mine opponents rebuild midst conflicts. Building anthropological scholarship subject capitalism produces, Tomas Frederiksen Matthew Himley argue generates subjectivities” (2020, p. 58) reworking, best serve interests, inclusion exclusion activities engender locally. These widely documented, including around (Cajax 2014). actors try repair fragmentation lands lives received scant attention. Hence interest activists’ (re)formation work. movements shown “enact … different knowing being, attesting worlds spite potentially destructive forces encroach upon them” (Li Paredes Penafiel, 2019, 221). Our provides original contribution showing can strive specific “ethical citizenship” (Muehlebach, 2012, p.8), anchored locally people's ways. analysis follows draws partnered research conducted separately FREDEMI. Marina Welker (2016, 586) claims, “there multiple ethical positions write about mining.” Given positionality white settler Canadians asymmetrical power relationships Canadian governments (Kamphuis Connolly, 2022), consciously chose partner way counterbalance asymmetry. partnership shape consultation leadership data collection, analysis, dissemination methods. Karine Vanthuyne fieldwork Guatemala (December 2014, April 2018) Canada (October–November 2015, May 2018), Ottawa raise plight. Marie Christine Dugal completed July August her doctoral Vanthuyne's assistant. authors participated activities, related unrelated Marcos, Xela, City, numerous informal conversations regional involved anti-Marlin struggle. They also interviews forty-two participants, interviewing each participant four times. After describing secure maintain produced new subjectivities briefly outline origins, leadership, focus. turn organization's interpreted imposition harmful municipality, process. spans 5 km2, active, gold, silver byproduct. Part located (85 percent) Sipakapa (15 percent), two mainly Indigenous, particularly disadvantaged municipalities 86 population considered materially poor (SEGEPLAN, site open pits, underground tunnels, ore processing facility used cyanide leaching techniques, smelter, tailings storage dam pond, waste rock facility. It 2017. To “social operate” (Prno Scott Slocombe, 346), like most firms (Frederiksen Himley, 2020), attempted prevent address resistance consolidating construction region. begin with, 2002–2003, only select group leaders acquired gold 1999. Further, disclosure sessions “were highly technical did time sufficient information allow view likely adverse impacts project” (CAO, 2005, ii). socioeconomic benefits employment development. When locals began denouncing voicing concerns potential environmental impacts, furthered exclusion. For instance, 2009, paid employees family walk holding signs accused “anti-development troublemakers.” (anonymous, interview, December 16, 2014) further means division, provided supporters discouraged sharing mine's opponents. Corporations attempting manage mine-affected gifting (Shever, Yet beginning mounting harms caused extraction, “these efforts crystallized ‘corporate responsibility’ (CSR) movement” 2022, 28). belief market, state, govern corporation's adherence norms (Welker, 2009). Advocates promote voluntary corporate self-regulation mandatory national transnational regulation. “advocates CSR radical departure old-school philanthropy,” ethnographies reveal “that specter Maussian gift” continues amidst initiatives (Dolan Rajak, 12). case Montana, former workers confirm signed agreements village authorities agreeing fund infrastructure support. process, became excluded projects gave to, participating villages’ proceedings. fooling (engañando) you, [promising] small kitchen [or village's] road. do need things, cannot accept [from Montana], doing unjust. stealing wealth. And going leave contaminated. (Aniseto June 15, 2015) 2009 coalition ADISMI, schoolteachers (who later realigned mine), Church. elsewhere (Graeter, 2017), church raising consequences (Holden Jacobson, 2009; Dugal, charismatic, university-educated Mayan nun Maudilia López-Cardona, named leader. year later, given tensions activists, church's desire remain spiritual home all, stand-alone López. continued morally longer active role. Along other throughout world (Kirsch, 2014), soon multiscalar, is, “composed geographical locations acts spheres, influenced combination international, regional, national, communitarian regulations” (Urkidi, 2011, 257). Stefanie Grater (2017, 128) notes, technocratic paradigm governance now live in, “scientific measurements [to] translate purported toxic transgressions directly legal pollution limits, leading fines, sanctions, even closures.” measurements, proceedings force closure, costly complex elitist, usually economic, cultural, social, symbolic communities. groups often enter strategic alliances formed Paz. wide network human rights organizations “increased flows resources scales” 557), submission official complaint National Contact Point (NCP) 2010, Interamerican Commission Human Rights (IACHR) calling suspend Goldcorp's operations same 2022).3 Nonetheless, defense territory (Bastos Sieder, 2014; Copeland, 2019a) remained foremost grounded (in case, Miguel). Let rebuilding members’ municipality. At article's introduction, discussion missing findings, attendance evidence community's mine-contaminated water, vast impact economy, based subsistence small-scale agriculture. Santiago, elderly peasant dressed rags, said, “I found five dead fish up river basin near my village. heavy metals water killing animals sowings.” He worried vegetables campesinos sold biweekly market slowly entire population. “We convince demand mine,” replied. “He's charge.” While previous mayors co-opted believed newly elected might take side, everyone's agreement Santiago “his allegiances could mayors’ were” co-optation private relatively phenomenon, according members. foundation 1900, administered mayors, exception years General Jorge Ubico Castañeda's presidency (1931–1944), municipalities, governed ladinos sent intendants (McCreery, 1994). A long-time activist until transition 1985, “simple folks education prepared job elders… . really knew townspeople loved them, cared (Ursula, 20, congressional elections organized 1954–1986 dictatorships, selected few high affiliations parties offered campaign recruit base. Through become patronizing, self-serving, disinterested good. worse decentralization reforms 2002, access funding. nearly 4.5 million USD 2006 (Zarsky Stanley, 2013). argued “what earn per month, 12,000 Q [around 1,560 USD], enough acquire 2–3 companies, machinery, large transport trucks, cars latest models, houses corners” (López, interview authors, 21, translation), siphoning funds. What wrong you? Why you opposing sale? You sell your company. broken lands. Sell buy [or] bus… How nice here extract very beneficial us. (Interview, Peréz Bámaca, Agel, 13, translation) house perched hilltop villages Marlin, Bámaca Gonzalez resorted threats (see Macleod Pérez 2013).5 warned father father's neighbors if oppose sale, he, along company, responsibility damage taxes return permission ore, choice willing resettle. Therefore, neighbors, little nowhere else turn, relented. situation replicated ancestors’ history. During Reforms 1871, collaboration ladino landowners, declared peasants’ fallow “vacant” reassigned landowners result, able coffee plantations cattle farms, Bámaca's ancestors, full-time seasonal mozos (farm workers). Angél another activist, forced labor parents experienced 1944, stating treated slaves” (Miguel Siete Platos, 19, “Democratic Spring” (1944–1954), eight families owned manipulated institutions protect assets. “When I young [in 1970s], recruiting Army homeland. But homeland, oligarchy,” revolutionary movement. demilitarization followed signing Peace Accords 1996 nothing improve people; called enforce oligarchy's repressing opposition, demonstrations Marlin. corruption scandals president, vice top officials out office conducting 2015 (Burrell, El Kotni, Calmo, 2020) surprising “governments looking supposed care favor economically powerful sectors” 2015). judicial ministries monitoring controlled interests. Some arrest warrants protesting (Sibrián van der Borgh, intimidation part allies. complained quality company's laboratories Ministry Energy Mines (MEM), governmental institution reportedly (Garcia José Community Environmental Monitoring Association (AMAC), funded MEM studies denied contaminated waterways, Comisión Ecología (Peace Ecology Commission, COPAE), Diocese repeatedly iron, aluminum, manganese, arsenic concentrations exceeding international use standards (COPAE, 2008, Graeter 121) cogently argues, “the achievement scientific objectivity solely undertaking… Complex arrangement[s] [are] achieve socially recognized objectivity.” affiliation Church experience authorities, trusted COPAE's felt MEM's fundamentally biased. practices state/municipal seen factors approval mega blatant impacts. eyes members, blame. “Unfortunately, people, poverty exists communities, party offers gift, surrender. gets easily (Anonymous, shade opposite Francisco Salomón likened voted keep “poultry that, corn thrown run despair grab it” (Francisco Ixcaniché, added main deter opposition finance projects, soccer fields halls. Deference authority perceived issue. “For says says. No bothered investigate depth [when praised mine],” Ursula, important factor fear. target Army's genocidal scorched earth (1981–1983), progressive brutally disappeared late 1970s (CEH, 1999). Those survived stayed behind learned “stay away ‘politics’” obey orders commissioners chosen municipality internal armed (1960–1996). “This environment freely establish itself lands, without anyone Many believe poverty, authoritarianism, counterinsurgency indoctrination Maya-n peasants easy prey duplicitous (Copeland, 2019b; Vanthuyne, nonetheless aggravated situation. “It cancer invaded bodies. once. grabbing us, there left us” Here Ursula referring She pointing offer counter spiritually debilitated people. “By taking advantage robbed dignity. extreme poverty.” review socio-environmental conflicts, Leah Horowitz (2011, 1387) “communities divided response industrialization understandings economies, ecosystems, health side supports position arguments conceptualizations identity insider/outsider dichotomy.” dichotomy expressed belonging. (2008) argues emerges nurtured kojb'il. refer collectivity Mam, body share, consider inseparable qna'b’il heart capacity feel). explains historically mobilized metaphors illness plight times crisis and, way, knowledgeable, empathetic demonstrated suggested animals” desperate seize threw them; likewise, she suffering cancer” destroying individually collectively therefore, non-cons